Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency under the most contentious circumstances in American history, inheriting a nation fractured by civil war and facing the unprecedented challenge of reintegrating the Confederate states. His tenure, which spanned from 1865 to 1869, was defined by a fierce struggle to define the terms of Reconstruction and the rights of the newly emancipated population. Unlike his predecessor, who approached the Union's restoration with a spirit of reconciliation, Johnson’s approach quickly ignited a constitutional crisis that reshaped the relationship between the executive and legislative branches.
The Succession and Immediate Challenges
On April 15, 1865, Andrew Johnson, then Vice President, was sworn in as the 17th President of the United States following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. This succession occurred while the nation was still engulfed in the final throes of the Civil War, and the primary question on everyone's mind was how to bring the rebellious states back into the Union. Johnson, a former military governor of Tennessee and a Democrat who remained loyal to the Union, brought a perspective rooted in states' rights and a strict interpretation of the Constitution, which immediately put him at odds with the Radical Republicans in Congress who sought to transform the social and political landscape of the South.
Presidential Reconstruction and the Amnesty Proclamations
Johnson implemented a plan known as Presidential Reconstruction, which prioritized swift restoration of the Union over the protection of freedmen. In May 1865, he issued a series of amnesty proclamations that granted pardons and the restoration of property (except for slaves and specific types of Confederate property) to former Confederates who swore an oath of allegiance to the United States. While this move was intended to heal the nation quickly, it resulted in the rapid re-establishment of pre-war Southern governments, many of which enacted Black Codes designed to restrict the freedom and rights of African Americans, effectively maintaining a system of racial subjugation under a different name.
The Clash Over the Black Codes
The implementation of the Black Codes was the catalyst for the major conflict between the executive and legislative branches. These laws essentially criminalized black leisure, restricted their movement, and created a system of labor that mirrored slavery. When Johnson dismissed the concerns of the Radical Republicans and failed to intervene, Congress responded by refusing to seat the Southern delegates elected under the new state governments. This deadlock marked the beginning of a bitter legislative battle, culminating in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which Johnson vetoed, arguing that it discriminated against white citizens and exceeded the powers of the federal government. Congress famously overrode his veto, the first such instance in American history, signaling a decisive shift in the balance of power.
The Tenure of Office Act and Impeachment
The conflict between the president and Congress escalated to a constitutional crisis with the passage of the Tenure of Office Act in 1867. This law was designed to limit the president’s power to remove officials who had been confirmed by the Senate, specifically targeting Johnson’s ability to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, a supporter of the Radical Republicans. When Johnson defiantly fired Stanton in February 1868 and attempted to replace him with General Lorenzo Thomas, he violated the act directly. The House of Representatives seized on this action as a pretext for impeachment, charging him with "high crimes and misdemeanors." The subsequent trial in the Senate became a dramatic political showdown, where Johnson survived removal by a single vote, highlighting the deep divisions within the nation.
Foreign Policy and Diplomatic Efforts
More perspective on What did andrew johnson do during his presidency can make the topic easier to follow by connecting earlier points with a few simple takeaways.
